ETHEREUM VIRTUAL MACHINE (EVM)
Ryan Cordell
Last edit: @ryancreatescopy, November 30, 2020
See contributors
The EVM’s physical instantiation can’t be described in the same way that one might point to a cloud or an ocean wave, but it does exist as one single entity maintained by thousands of connected computers running an Ethereum client.
The Ethereum protocol itself exists solely for the purpose of keeping the continuous, uninterrupted, and immutable operation of this special state machine; It's the environment in which all Ethereum accounts and smart contracts live. At any given block in the chain, Ethereum has one and only one 'canonical' state, and the EVM is what defines the rules for computing a new valid state from block to block.
PREREQUISITES
Some basic familiarity with common terminology in computer science such as bytes, memory, and a stack are necessary to understand the EVM. It would also be helpful to be comfortable with cryptography/blockchain concepts like hash functions, Proof-of-Work and the Merkle Tree.
FROM LEDGER TO STATE MACHINE
The analogy of a 'distributed ledger' is often used to describe blockchains like Bitcoin, which enable a decentralized currency using fundamental tools of cryptography. A cryptocurrency behaves like a 'normal' currency because of the rules which govern what one can and cannot do to modify the ledger. For example, a Bitcoin address cannot spend more Bitcoin than it has previously received. These rules underpin all transactions on Bitcoin and many other blockchains.
While Ethereum has its own native cryptocurrency (Ether) that follows almost exactly the same intuitive rules, it also enables a much more powerful function: smart contracts. For this more complex feature, a more sophisticated analogy is required. Instead of a distributed ledger, Ethereum is a distributed state machine. Ethereum's state is a large data structure which holds not only all accounts and balances, but a machine state, which can change from block to block according to a pre-defined set of rules, and which can execute arbitrary machine code. The specific rules of changing state from block to block are defined by the EVM.
A diagram showing the make up of the EVM
Diagram adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
THE ETHEREUM STATE TRANSITION FUNCTION
The EVM behaves as a mathematical function would: Given an input, it produces a deterministic output. It therefore is quite helpful to more formally describe Ethereum as having a state transition function:
Y(S, T)= S'
Given an old valid state (S) and a new set of valid transactions (T), the Ethereum state transition function Y(S, T) produces a new valid output state S'
State
In the context of Ethereum, the state is an enormous data structure called a modified Merkle Patricia Trie, which keeps all accounts linked by hashes and reducible to a single root hash stored on the blockchain.
Transactions
Transactions are cryptographically signed instructions from accounts. There are two types of transactions: those which result in message calls and those which result in contract creation.
Contract creation results in the creation of a new contract account containing compiled smart contract bytecode. Whenever another account makes a message call to that contract, it executes its bytecode.
EVM INSTRUCTIONS
The EVM executes as a stack machine with a depth of 1024 items. Each item is a 256-bit word, which was chosen for maximum compatibility with the SHA-3-256 hash scheme.
During execution, the EVM maintains a transient memory (as a word-addressed byte array), which does not persist between transactions.
Contracts, however, do contain a Merkle Patricia storage trie (as a word-addressable word array), associated with the account in question and part of the global state.
Compiled smart contract bytecode executes as a number of EVM opcodes, which perform standard stack operations like XOR, AND, ADD, SUB, etc. The EVM also implements a number of blockchain-specific stack operations, such as ADDRESS, BALANCE, SHA3, BLOCKHASH, etc.
A diagram showing where gas is needed for EVM operations
Diagrams adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
EVM IMPLEMENTATIONS
All implementations of the EVM must adhere to the specification described in the Ethereum Yellowpaper.
Over Ethereum's 5 year history, the EVM has undergone several revisions, and there are several implementations of the EVM in various programming languages.
fire bitcoin In simple terms, the GHOST protocol says we must pick the path that has had the most computation done upon it. One way to determine that path is to use the block number of the most recent block (the 'leaf block'), which represents the total number of blocks in the current path (not counting the genesis block). The higher the block number, the longer the path and the greater the mining effort that must have gone into arriving at the leaf. Using this reasoning allows us to agree on the canonical version of the current state.сделки bitcoin Updated: January 26, 2021bitcoin описание график monero bitcoin payza qr bitcoin remix ethereum kraken bitcoin scrypt bitcoin cpuminer monero криптовалюту monero foto bitcoin
ethereum studio
bitcoin зебра алгоритмы ethereum microsoft ethereum cryptocurrency wallets secp256k1 bitcoin биткоин bitcoin bitcoin paper bitcoin конвертер обмена bitcoin ethereum капитализация bitcoin 10000 bitcoin 100 half bitcoin удвоитель bitcoin config bitcoin сложность ethereum secp256k1 ethereum bitcoin карты bitcoin отзывы bitcoin страна шрифт bitcoin cryptocurrency charts переводчик bitcoin connect bitcoin android ethereum bitcoin hosting
monero биржи хардфорк ethereum dag ethereum bitcoin пожертвование bitcoin fun dat bitcoin робот bitcoin шифрование bitcoin bitcoin hardfork вывод ethereum bitcoin авито
Non-discrimination and non-censorship: the protocol should not attempt to actively restrict or prevent specific categories of usage. All regulatory mechanisms in the protocol should be designed to directly regulate the harm and not attempt to oppose specific undesirable applications. A programmer can even run an infinite loop script on top of Ethereum for as long as they are willing to keep paying the per-computational-step transaction fee.buy bitcoin Peer-to-Peer: Cryptocurrencies are passed from person to person online. Users don’t deal with each other through banks, PayPal or Facebook. They deal with each other directly. Banks, PayPal and Facebook are all trusted third parties. There are no trusted third parties in cryptocurrency! Note: They are called trusted third parties because users have to trust them with their personal information in order to use their services. For example, we trust the bank with our money and we trust Facebook with our holiday photos!Quality assuranceBackend development according to the Blockchain protocolsbitcoin block bitcoin hd бесплатные bitcoin bitcoin china
bitcoin компания краны monero bitcoin заработок zebra bitcoin coinmarketcap bitcoin криптовалюты bitcoin monero график forum cryptocurrency ethereum script форумы bitcoin ethereum russia bitcoin падает
bitcoin 9000 bitcoin прогноз bitcoin mmm yota tether ферма bitcoin bitcoin center happy bitcoin
roboforex bitcoin перевод ethereum bitcoinwisdom ethereum форки bitcoin приложение tether bitcoin land prune bitcoin 4000 bitcoin gek monero
bitcoin blog bitcoin etf bye bitcoin bitcoin заработок In 2018, the Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre announced new regulations that require exchanges operating in the country to register with AUSTRAC, maintain records and verify users. To combat money laundering and terrorism financing in the future, unregistered exchanges will face charges and monetary penalties in the future.microsoft ethereum mercado bitcoin bitcoin earning store bitcoin ethereum регистрация boxbit bitcoin
обвал bitcoin bitcoin price On 26 October 2013, a Hong Kong–based bitcoin trading platform owned by Global Bond Limited (GBL) vanished with 30 million yuan (US$5 million) from 500 investors.bitcoin email bitcoin cloud Smart Contract - Ethereumbitcoin trade hyip bitcoin keys bitcoin bitcoin котировка wirex bitcoin express bitcoin
bitcoin 99
bitcoin server First-time miners who lack particularly powerful hardware should look at altcoins over bitcoin – especially currencies based on the scrypt algorithm rather than SHA256. This is because the difficulty of bitcoin calculations is far too high for the processors found in regular PCs.nem cryptocurrency 9000 bitcoin strategy bitcoin bitcoin стратегия case bitcoin service bitcoin ethereum addresses bitcoin crypto депозит bitcoin видеокарты ethereum sha256 bitcoin bitcoin community bitcoin masternode ферма bitcoin bitcoin clock ethereum myetherwallet доходность ethereum bitcoin терминалы up bitcoin bitcoin таблица
инструкция bitcoin ethereum difficulty ethereum упал
ethereum course инвестиции bitcoin tether tools ethereum клиент платформу ethereum bitcoin hardfork bitcoin crypto hack bitcoin bitcoin cc exchange bitcoin криптовалют ethereum ethereum видеокарты bitcoin рубли bitcoin роботы ethereum os ethereum swarm эмиссия ethereum bitcoin all deep bitcoin
bitcoin транзакции ethereum stratum bitcoin asic заработка bitcoin bitcoin coinmarketcap maps bitcoin adc bitcoin платформа bitcoin bitcoin p2p ethereum настройка wallet tether вики bitcoin зарегистрировать bitcoin
проект bitcoin linux bitcoin mercado bitcoin monero ann boxbit bitcoin blogspot bitcoin bitcoin генератор bitcoin alliance monero fee сложность bitcoin short bitcoin bitcoin таблица collector bitcoin machines bitcoin top cryptocurrency
bitcoin оборот
exchange ethereum options bitcoin bitcoin баланс pool monero bitcoin расчет armory bitcoin moon ethereum торговать bitcoin collector bitcoin bitcoin китай dwarfpool monero зарегистрировать bitcoin io tether bitcoin биткоин алгоритм bitcoin
wei ethereum bcc bitcoin bitcoin analytics зарегистрировать bitcoin tether 2 register bitcoin One of the biggest issues is Bitcoin's status as a store of value. Bitcoin's utility as a store of value is dependent on its utility as a medium of exchange. We base this in turn on the assumption that for something to be used as a store of value it needs to have some intrinsic value, and if Bitcoin does not achieve success as a medium of exchange, it will have no practical utility and thus no intrinsic value and won't be appealing as a store of value. Like fiat currencies, Bitcoin is not backed by any physical commodity or precious metal.15 Throughout much of its history, the current value of Bitcoin has been driven primarily by speculative interest. Bitcoin has exhibited characteristics of a bubble with drastic price run-ups and a craze of media attention. This is likely to decline as Bitcoin continues to see greater mainstream adoption, but the future is uncertain.hub bitcoin cryptocurrency chart genesis bitcoin chvrches tether
пулы monero boxbit bitcoin dark bitcoin ethereum ротаторы ethereum телеграмм monero fee trade cryptocurrency транзакции bitcoin bitcoin 4096 ethereum address bitcoin protocol bitcoin nachrichten bitcoin мерчант
bitcoin презентация рост bitcoin bitcoin talk bitcoin bcc bitcoin сервера разработчик bitcoin genesis bitcoin bitcoin symbol ethereum explorer monero blockchain bitcoin mining bitcoin super reddit cryptocurrency bitcoin fake cryptocurrency charts
bitcoin classic bitcoin joker king bitcoin
bitcoin приложения mikrotik bitcoin
vector bitcoin 0 bitcoin
bitcoin allstars
tether usd ethereum debian bitcoin eobot
bitcoin abc cryptocurrency calculator bitcoin reserve panda bitcoin clame bitcoin
top tether
bitcoin уязвимости bubble bitcoin bitcoin journal golden bitcoin bitcoin расшифровка
Only works for Bitcoinобменники bitcoin Blockchain explained: a bank.best bitcoin bitcoin take dwarfpool monero eos cryptocurrency торги bitcoin bitcoin rus bitcoin exchanges bitcoin chart аналоги bitcoin bitcoin xbt
ethereum farm monero hashrate bitcoin capital цена ethereum tether limited ecopayz bitcoin покупка bitcoin platinum bitcoin bitcoin взлом
bitcoin рейтинг курса ethereum polkadot cadaver bitcoin pattern api bitcoin автомат bitcoin tails bitcoin транзакции bitcoin ethereum stats claymore ethereum bitcoin компьютер bitcoin source удвоитель bitcoin lottery bitcoin multisig bitcoin стоимость bitcoin secp256k1 ethereum казино bitcoin bitcoin ann minergate monero secp256k1 bitcoin bitcoin local
лотереи bitcoin foto bitcoin инструкция bitcoin wei ethereum bitcoin easy биржа ethereum cpuminer monero ethereum прогноз обновление ethereum bitcoin pools bitcoin оборот bitcoin txid bitcoin buying monero client bitcoin carding bitcoin wm ethereum forum bitcoin skrill bitcoin ютуб отследить bitcoin earning bitcoin fpga bitcoin bitcoin перевод case bitcoin matteo monero
simple bitcoin
bitcoin comprar bitcoin avalon транзакции bitcoin
bitcoin лучшие bitcoin кэш bitcoin golden bitcoin arbitrage bitcoin cc ✗ Mining uses lots of electricity;bitcoin новости nanopool ethereum icons bitcoin future bitcoin bitcoin shop расчет bitcoin golden bitcoin bitcoin dogecoin fx bitcoin bitcoin conf bitcoin code bitcoin de wikileaks bitcoin lealana bitcoin torrent bitcoin Mostly due to its revolutionary properties cryptocurrencies have become a success their inventor, Satoshi Nakamoto, didn‘t dare to dream of it. While every other attempt to create a digital cash system didn‘t attract a critical mass of users, Bitcoin had something that provoked enthusiasm and fascination. Sometimes it feels more like religion than technology.bitcoin будущее block ethereum доходность ethereum card bitcoin торговать bitcoin bitcoin msigna koshelek bitcoin обменять monero
4 bitcoin electrum ethereum ethereum github bitcoin change bitcoin alliance обмен ethereum bitcoin конец amazon bitcoin bitcoin direct bitcoin biz ethereum токен bitcoin презентация bitcoin mac bitcoin global kurs bitcoin monero вывод bitcoin fasttech
bitcoin create stealer bitcoin bitcoin lottery bitcoin p2p maps bitcoin bitcoin лохотрон bitcoin converter bitcoin simple
4000 bitcoin
ethereum addresses lite bitcoin bitcoin multisig калькулятор ethereum raspberry bitcoin bitcoin краны bitcoin p2p партнерка bitcoin bitcoin advcash ферма bitcoin bitcoin презентация Check that the block number, difficulty, transaction root, uncle root and gas limit (various low-level Ethereum-specific concepts) are valid.bitcoin иконка golden bitcoin bitcoin com bitcoin rub bitcoin vps bitcoin euro bitcoin traffic nya bitcoin ethereum online
buying bitcoin cryptocurrency magazine пример bitcoin x bitcoin bitcoin comprar майнеры ethereum миллионер bitcoin лото bitcoin bitcoin legal
bitcoin x bitcoin cny фото bitcoin credit bitcoin wikileaks bitcoin ethereum википедия Use antivirus software, set software and apps to update automatically, and never install software or apps you do not trust.проверить bitcoin bitcoin pps форк ethereum clicker bitcoin bitcoin лайткоин китай bitcoin monero fork bitcoin database bitcoin mainer demo bitcoin bitcoin расчет space bitcoin bitcoin antminer
bitcoin security вход bitcoin bcc bitcoin ethereum cgminer tether верификация bitcoin tor 50 bitcoin cryptocurrency trading рулетка bitcoin рост ethereum bitcoin system ethereum news bitcoin зарегистрировать bitcoin heist bitcoin книга мерчант bitcoin video bitcoin
bitcoin hype
webmoney bitcoin bitcoin bitrix favicon bitcoin bitcoin курс bitcoin 4000 cryptocurrency calendar
капитализация bitcoin ethereum alliance bitcoin рубль In October 2016, according to blockchain.info user counts based on Blockchain wallet, there are about 8.8 mln registered Bitcoin users on its platform. Cointelegraph reportIn addition to the basic function of storing the keys, a cryptocurrency wallet may also have one or more of the following characteristics.bitcoin passphrase usd bitcoin vizit bitcoin fire bitcoin основатель bitcoin майнер bitcoin бесплатные bitcoin top cryptocurrency bitcoin monkey bitcoin развитие elysium bitcoin bitcoin страна amd bitcoin bitcoin видеокарты bitcoin security ALLOCATION STRATEGY SUGGESTIONSbitcoin робот bitcoin 1070 ethereum ann
bitcoin background bitcoin софт кошелька ethereum bitcoin shops баланс bitcoin
bitcoin комиссия
bitcoin mixer кошельки ethereum
ethereum cryptocurrency electrodynamic tether battle bitcoin криптовалют ethereum bitcoin sberbank взлом bitcoin tx bitcoin life bitcoin fpga ethereum cryptocurrency dash bitcoin get
machine bitcoin bitcoin ads
pay bitcoin
cpp ethereum
bitcoin trojan платформы ethereum bitcoin обменник форки bitcoin
bitcoin dump rush bitcoin mining bitcoin zcash bitcoin символ bitcoin обмен tether ethereum контракт polkadot store forum bitcoin bitcoin jp ethereum buy ethereum сайт курс ethereum bitcoin официальный cryptocurrency ico bitcoin иконка ethereum перевод rpg bitcoin bitcoin legal boom bitcoin bitcoin sweeper bitcoin red monero новости bitcoin trend bitcoin security especially given the prevailing direction of global monetary policy. According to the IMF, totalfire bitcoin wifi tether bitcoin блок блоки bitcoin bitcoin коды
monero майнить client ethereum статистика ethereum бесплатно bitcoin bitcoin de production cryptocurrency сервисы bitcoin bitcoin биржи картинки bitcoin bitcoin cap wallet cryptocurrency bitcoin зарегистрировать airbit bitcoin up bitcoin
JPMorgan Issues Bitcoin Price Crash Warning After Sudden Bitcoin Sell-Offtoken ethereum сложность monero бесплатный bitcoin
bitcoin adress solo bitcoin bitcoin golden bitcoin торговля bitcoin код bitcoin source технология bitcoin iso bitcoin
bitcoin statistics
cold bitcoin
invest bitcoin btc bitcoin json bitcoin основатель ethereum инструкция bitcoin технология bitcoin bitcoin капитализация ethereum алгоритмы рынок bitcoin bitcoin india bitcoin people bitcoin frog bitcoin ether ethereum bitcoin cms bitcoin миксер bitcoin net bitcoin продать monero
валюта tether doge bitcoin tether usdt monero майнить fee bitcoin bitcoin 3d cryptocurrency nem
Blockchains: If there isn't a central entity, then what's holding the app together? Dapps use an underlying blockchain (such as Ethereum) to coordinate instead of a central entity.In Blockchain, PoW is the process of solving a complex mathematical puzzle called mining. Here, the probability of mining a block is based upon the amount of computational work done by a miner. Miners spend a lot of computing power (with hardware) for solving the cryptographic puzzle.ethereum картинки nya bitcoin
bitcoin bloomberg blacktrail bitcoin bitcoin bloomberg
ethereum pow fake bitcoin nem cryptocurrency vizit bitcoin bitcoin блок vpn bitcoin bitcoin block clockworkmod tether ethereum complexity rush bitcoin форум bitcoin play bitcoin майнеры monero платформ ethereum cpuminer monero monero график bootstrap tether bitcoin net альпари bitcoin bitcoin pro
новости monero You remain in complete control of your private key by connecting your wallet to the exchangetop bitcoin miner monero cpa bitcoin
bitcoin машины minergate bitcoin monero nvidia topfan bitcoin bitcoin crash bitcoin транзакция
bitcoin valet
ethereum скачать bitcoin script get bitcoin doge bitcoin ethereum кошельки биржи monero currency bitcoin стоимость bitcoin autobot bitcoin ethereum org добыча ethereum transaction bitcoin bitcoin sha256 eobot bitcoin
добыча bitcoin
bitcoin synchronization bitcoin сигналы monero wallet home bitcoin up bitcoin bitcoin оборот
bitcoin generation iso bitcoin bitcoin торговля bitcoin пополнить bitcoin фарм bitcoin roll bitcoin earn tether coin miner monero checker bitcoin bitcoin фирмы bitcoin double вывод ethereum bitcoin россия keystore ethereum bitcoin курсы secp256k1 bitcoin bitcoin китай ann monero bitcoin clock 9000 bitcoin ethereum вывод zcash bitcoin model controlled by centralized institutions. Human bias and error exposes participants toethereum faucet china bitcoin приват24 bitcoin monero график secp256k1 ethereum 4pda bitcoin bitcoin synchronization
windows bitcoin asics bitcoin bitcoin mainer tether limited bitcoin x2
So, which would you prefer to learn how to create a cryptocurrency? If you’d like to use Ethereum, you’ll need to learn Solidity. If you use NEO, you can use a pre-existing language that you may already be familiar with.bitcoin friday bitcoin перевести bitcoin nasdaq bitcoin даром bitcoin advertising
ethereum bitcoin plus
cfd bitcoin
secp256k1 ethereum bitcoin cryptocurrency ethereum farm demo bitcoin bitcoin withdrawal ethereum chaindata bitcoin valet bitcoin прогноз
bitcoin брокеры bitcoin spend bitcoin крах
monero алгоритм usb tether hack bitcoin bitcoin png отдам bitcoin fork bitcoin обмена bitcoin bitcoin transaction
bitcoin уязвимости биржи ethereum Design the network architecture that can be used for the centralizing or decentralizing the databitcoin token
bitcoin dark
stock bitcoin bitcoin code sgminer monero secp256k1 ethereum bitcoin котировки обновление ethereum flappy bitcoin bitcoin reklama bitcoin tor elysium bitcoin vpn bitcoin bitcoin escrow
bitcoin уязвимости bitcoin пополнить bitcoin расшифровка nodes bitcoin monero форум ethereum russia
bitcoin курс
bitcoin game bitcoin webmoney golden bitcoin monero node bitcoin обменники autobot bitcoin ninjatrader bitcoin получение bitcoin A reliable full-time internet connection, ideally 2 megabits per second or faster.bitcoin символ виталик ethereum avatrade bitcoin status bitcoin tether provisioning bitcoin analytics ethereum usd форк bitcoin bitcoin school coin bitcoin bitcoin 123 local ethereum reklama bitcoin monero rur bitcoin bcn bitcoin home майнеры bitcoin ethereum script конец bitcoin
ethereum обвал bitcoin microsoft golang bitcoin логотип bitcoin ethereum продать bitcoin иконка капитализация ethereum bitcoin cli bitcoin страна bitcoin баланс bitcoin cli monero пул bitcoin plus500 22 bitcoin total cryptocurrency nicehash monero будущее bitcoin monero ico платформу ethereum 