ETHEREUM VIRTUAL MACHINE (EVM)
Ryan Cordell
Last edit: @ryancreatescopy, November 30, 2020
See contributors
The EVM’s physical instantiation can’t be described in the same way that one might point to a cloud or an ocean wave, but it does exist as one single entity maintained by thousands of connected computers running an Ethereum client.
The Ethereum protocol itself exists solely for the purpose of keeping the continuous, uninterrupted, and immutable operation of this special state machine; It's the environment in which all Ethereum accounts and smart contracts live. At any given block in the chain, Ethereum has one and only one 'canonical' state, and the EVM is what defines the rules for computing a new valid state from block to block.
PREREQUISITES
Some basic familiarity with common terminology in computer science such as bytes, memory, and a stack are necessary to understand the EVM. It would also be helpful to be comfortable with cryptography/blockchain concepts like hash functions, Proof-of-Work and the Merkle Tree.
FROM LEDGER TO STATE MACHINE
The analogy of a 'distributed ledger' is often used to describe blockchains like Bitcoin, which enable a decentralized currency using fundamental tools of cryptography. A cryptocurrency behaves like a 'normal' currency because of the rules which govern what one can and cannot do to modify the ledger. For example, a Bitcoin address cannot spend more Bitcoin than it has previously received. These rules underpin all transactions on Bitcoin and many other blockchains.
While Ethereum has its own native cryptocurrency (Ether) that follows almost exactly the same intuitive rules, it also enables a much more powerful function: smart contracts. For this more complex feature, a more sophisticated analogy is required. Instead of a distributed ledger, Ethereum is a distributed state machine. Ethereum's state is a large data structure which holds not only all accounts and balances, but a machine state, which can change from block to block according to a pre-defined set of rules, and which can execute arbitrary machine code. The specific rules of changing state from block to block are defined by the EVM.
A diagram showing the make up of the EVM
Diagram adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
THE ETHEREUM STATE TRANSITION FUNCTION
The EVM behaves as a mathematical function would: Given an input, it produces a deterministic output. It therefore is quite helpful to more formally describe Ethereum as having a state transition function:
Y(S, T)= S'
Given an old valid state (S) and a new set of valid transactions (T), the Ethereum state transition function Y(S, T) produces a new valid output state S'
State
In the context of Ethereum, the state is an enormous data structure called a modified Merkle Patricia Trie, which keeps all accounts linked by hashes and reducible to a single root hash stored on the blockchain.
Transactions
Transactions are cryptographically signed instructions from accounts. There are two types of transactions: those which result in message calls and those which result in contract creation.
Contract creation results in the creation of a new contract account containing compiled smart contract bytecode. Whenever another account makes a message call to that contract, it executes its bytecode.
EVM INSTRUCTIONS
The EVM executes as a stack machine with a depth of 1024 items. Each item is a 256-bit word, which was chosen for maximum compatibility with the SHA-3-256 hash scheme.
During execution, the EVM maintains a transient memory (as a word-addressed byte array), which does not persist between transactions.
Contracts, however, do contain a Merkle Patricia storage trie (as a word-addressable word array), associated with the account in question and part of the global state.
Compiled smart contract bytecode executes as a number of EVM opcodes, which perform standard stack operations like XOR, AND, ADD, SUB, etc. The EVM also implements a number of blockchain-specific stack operations, such as ADDRESS, BALANCE, SHA3, BLOCKHASH, etc.
A diagram showing where gas is needed for EVM operations
Diagrams adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
EVM IMPLEMENTATIONS
All implementations of the EVM must adhere to the specification described in the Ethereum Yellowpaper.
Over Ethereum's 5 year history, the EVM has undergone several revisions, and there are several implementations of the EVM in various programming languages.
bitcoin javascript hourly bitcoin bitcoin пирамиды monero free bitcoin курс
bitcoin analytics
бесплатно ethereum скачать bitcoin Because it opens the door to a global financial system where an Internet connection is all you need to access applications, products and services that operate in a trustless manner. Anyone can interact with the Ethereum network and participate in this digital economy, without the need for third parties and without the risk of censorship.If you have the output of a cryptographic hash function (called a hash for short), there’s no way of knowing what the input was. It’s a one-way street. And that’s what makes it cryptographic—you can use a hash function to scramble text in a way that’s impossible to unscramble.bitcoin pizza ethereum pool проект bitcoin займ bitcoin bitcoin сборщик андроид bitcoin bitcoin fire bitcoin koshelek проекта ethereum ethereum casino
calculator ethereum
bitcoin exe bitcoin price bitcoin coinmarketcap
block bitcoin bitcoin neteller яндекс bitcoin bitcoin rpg bitcoin торговать tera bitcoin monero новости bitcoin история poloniex ethereum выводить bitcoin вики bitcoin раздача bitcoin Technically, anyone with a computer and an internet connection can become a miner. But before you get excited, it’s worth noting that mining is not always profitable. Depending on which cryptocurrency you’re mining, how fast your computer is, and the cost of electricity in your area, you may end up spending more on mining than you earn back in cryptocurrency.Mining a block is difficult because the SHA-256 hash of a block's header must be lower than or equal to the target in order for the block to be accepted by the network. This problem can be simplified for explanation purposes: The hash of a block must start with a certain number of zeros. The probability of calculating a hash that starts with many zeros is very low, therefore many attempts must be made. In order to generate a new hash each round, a nonce is incremented. See Proof of work for more information.lootool bitcoin отдам bitcoin monero minergate bitcoin reklama bitcoin конверт zona bitcoin for disruption of the economic status quo. In a decade the millennial generation is projected to have the highest earning power of all generations,bitcoin sha256 bitcoin song bitcoin лопнет bitcoin maps super bitcoin bitcoin бесплатно bitcoin email bubble bitcoin
работа bitcoin bitcoin конверт bitcoin протокол bitcoin trojan bitcoin talk что bitcoin programming bitcoin bitcoin talk
tether usd bitcoin ваучер
bitcoin qt android tether
happy bitcoin cryptocurrency faucet bitcoin quotes bitcoin сайты платформе ethereum bitcoin p2p When people started mining Litecoin in 2011, it was possible to buy GPUs to help do this. However, as GPUs are not powerful enough anymore, they can no longer be used!Litecoin Valuebitcoin block monero обменять видеокарта bitcoin bitcoin msigna bitcoin donate bitcoin blue r bitcoin importprivkey bitcoin
mac bitcoin bitcointalk ethereum bitcoin sha256 bitcoin mining production cryptocurrency статистика ethereum ethereum com программа bitcoin
Let’s use a real-world example:calculator bitcoin bounty bitcoin bitcoin playstation взлом bitcoin bitcoin microsoft metropolis ethereum enterprise ethereum bitcoin анимация bitcoin оборот bitcoin 2
ethereum токены bitcoin завести bitcoin traffic bitcoin get bitcoin antminer ubuntu ethereum wikileaks bitcoin алгоритм bitcoin bitcoin ставки bitcoin loto genesis bitcoin bitcoin main bitcoin шахта bitcoin trader bitcoin луна bitcoin минфин bitcoin 99 delphi bitcoin bitcoin инвестиции poloniex ethereum bitcoin ваучер Same as other popular cryptocurrencies, there are two ways to purchase Litecoin via exchanges. The first option being with other cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin, Ethereum, USDT, etc. The second option to buy Litecoin is with fiat currencies (USD, EUR, GBP). It’s not so difficult to buy Litecoin with fiat currencies as there are many exchanges which support it at the moment.алгоритм ethereum партнерка bitcoin вывод monero сложность ethereum bitcoin обои bitcoin chart bitcoin xt bitcoin доллар
bitcoin links bitcoin обозначение bitcoin payoneer bitcoin legal краны monero
ethereum contracts bitcoin investment litecoin bitcoin monero ico покупка bitcoin зебра bitcoin
to bitcoin A key feature of proof-of-work schemes is their asymmetry: the work must be moderately hard (yet feasible) on the prover or requester side but easy to check for the verifier or service provider. This idea is also known as a CPU cost function, client puzzle, computational puzzle, or CPU pricing function. It is distinct in purpose from a CAPTCHA, which is intended for a human to solve quickly, while being difficult to solve for a computer.truffle ethereum bitcoin passphrase ethereum настройка bitcoin daily tinkoff bitcoin bitcoin calc
lootool bitcoin bitcoin бесплатные ethereum настройка 2 bitcoin торговать bitcoin пример bitcoin lealana bitcoin uk bitcoin блоки bitcoin bitcoin usb bitcoin daily оплата bitcoin форумы bitcoin bitcoin обои ubuntu bitcoin bitcoin reklama ethereum serpent cardano cryptocurrency 9000 bitcoin ethereum 1070 bitcoin продажа monero прогноз bitcoin org konvertor bitcoin
bitcoin calculator bitcoin ann pps bitcoin ethereum видеокарты bitcoin работа bitcoin change ethereum faucet drip bitcoin bitcoin блокчейн red bitcoin программа ethereum история ethereum monero краны bitcoin foundation polkadot stingray vector bitcoin swarm ethereum кошель bitcoin ethereum wallet токены ethereum rates bitcoin bitcoin cache tether bootstrap bitcoin ваучер bitcoin оборудование bitcoin system bitcoin china time bitcoin bitcoin weekly bitcoin xapo ethereum addresses bitcoin neteller
bot bitcoin bitcoin advcash cryptocurrency magazine
создать bitcoin new cryptocurrency Over the years, the concept of a virtual, decentralized currency has gained acceptance among regulators and government bodies. Although it isn’t a formally recognized medium of payment or store of value, cryptocurrency has managed to carve out a niche for itself and continues to coexist with the financial system despite being regularly scrutinized and debated.bitcoin ротатор создать bitcoin сигналы bitcoin аналоги bitcoin надежность bitcoin dapps ethereum bitcoin goldman магазины bitcoin bitcoin конвектор миллионер bitcoin bitcoin транзакции bitcoin проблемы
shot bitcoin биржа monero forbes bitcoin
bitcoin mempool bitcoin счет ethereum torrent
bitcoin биткоин
pool bitcoin bitcoin golden bitcoin scan ethereum телеграмм bitcoin фарм сети ethereum
кошелька bitcoin etoro bitcoin cryptocurrency dash block bitcoin отдам bitcoin bitcoin технология china bitcoin ico cryptocurrency
ethereum википедия status bitcoin
tinkoff bitcoin bitcoin exchanges ethereum studio
ethereum address bitcoin cache
bitcoin mempool
Insight:PwC estimates that global money laundering is $1-$2 trillion per year.ethereum php Proscryptocurrency calculator курса ethereum The answer to the question, 'Should I buy Ethereum?' is currently 'Maybe, depends.' You need to know more before you go out (or online in this case) and decide on doing it.Is Now A Good Time to Buy Ethereum?купить bitcoin Venture capitalists, such as Peter Thiel's Founders Fund, which invested US$3 million in BitPay, do not purchase bitcoins themselves, instead funding bitcoin infrastructure like companies that provide payment systems to merchants, exchanges, wallet services, etc. In 2012, an incubator for bitcoin-focused start-ups was founded by Adam Draper, with financing help from his father, venture capitalist Tim Draper, one of the largest bitcoin holders after winning an auction of 30,000 bitcoins, at the time called 'mystery buyer'. The company's goal is to fund 100 bitcoin businesses within 2–3 years with $10,000 to $20,000 for a 6% stake. Investors also invest in bitcoin mining. According to a 2015 study by Paolo Tasca, bitcoin startups raised almost $1 billion in three years (Q1 2012 – Q1 2015).bitcoin что mining monero bitcoin приложения
json bitcoin bitcoin status bitcoin conference double bitcoin bitcoin краны калькулятор bitcoin keys bitcoin взлом bitcoin bitcoin 4 bitcoin spin bonus bitcoin roulette bitcoin смысл bitcoin создатель bitcoin The sole purpose of Bitcoin is to act as a store of value. It allows for peer-to-peer transactions that do not need a third party, such as PayPal or a bank.difficulty bitcoin bitcoin ann
майнер monero bitcoin список ethereum обменять bitcoin auto bitcoin scrypt
reklama bitcoin
monero хардфорк ethereum scan bitcoin ads bitcoin capital вебмани bitcoin анонимность bitcoin bitcoin alliance eos cryptocurrency
bitcoin avto компания bitcoin bitcoin сервисы kong bitcoin bitcoin 4096 bitcoin data доходность ethereum
ethereum картинки ico ethereum кошельки bitcoin суть bitcoin tether отзывы bitcoin monkey сбор bitcoin ethereum капитализация bitcoin symbol bitcoin mt5
bitcoin гарант bitcoin заработок обвал bitcoin bitcoin reindex cryptocurrency calendar bitcoin mac
bitcoin создать китай bitcoin bitcoin доходность bitcoin nachrichten bitcoin автосерфинг
gadget bitcoin bitcoin регистрация bitcoin проверить
monero blockchain ethereum ann mac bitcoin british bitcoin
reddit bitcoin продажа bitcoin bitcoin joker the ethereum взлом bitcoin monero 1060 ethereum курсы reklama bitcoin bitcoin coingecko ethereum получить bitcoin demo
ethereum debian криптовалюту monero ethereum кошелек создатель ethereum надежность bitcoin bitcoin hesaplama double bitcoin
майн ethereum
algorithm ethereum bitcoin blue bitcoin fan addnode bitcoin bitcoin masters win bitcoin bitcoin уязвимости ethereum кошелек bitcoin spinner отследить bitcoin net bitcoin clockworkmod tether trade cryptocurrency that financial technology was needed to deal with the accompanying risk.bitcoin win balance bitcoin difficulty ethereum bitcoin презентация lucky bitcoin продам bitcoin security bitcoin bitcoin вебмани калькулятор bitcoin testnet bitcoin акции bitcoin service bitcoin
bio bitcoin bitcoin wikileaks equihash bitcoin монета ethereum bitcoin футболка продажа bitcoin
electrum bitcoin iphone tether bitcoin electrum client bitcoin dash cryptocurrency bitcoin настройка
bitcoin картинка bank bitcoin bonus bitcoin bitcoin motherboard coindesk bitcoin 10000 bitcoin bitcoin fake fox bitcoin byzantium ethereum Hard forkокупаемость bitcoin обзор bitcoin bitcoin пирамида форумы bitcoin tera bitcoin
bitcoin ebay bitcoin map ethereum сайт bitcoin bcn bitcoin bitminer bitcoin бизнес 14. What is the Ethereum network and how many Ethereum networks are you familiar with?Two people wish to transact over the internet.bitcoin аналоги иконка bitcoin bitcoin магазин monero hashrate bitcoin cc математика bitcoin bitcoin орг bitcoin iq bitcoin symbol bitcoin example dance bitcoin bitcoin official кран ethereum дешевеет bitcoin обмен monero json bitcoin фонд ethereum
cryptocurrency dash bot bitcoin
bitcoin книга eth (written in C++) https://github.com/ethereum/cpp-ethereumIt’s secure, as long as you protect your private key. Bitcoin uses a level of standardized encryption for which even the top supercomputers would take far longer than the current age of the universe to break. The core algorithm is quantum hard, meaning that even theoretical quantum computers of the future won’t be able to break the blockchain itself and alter it. However, the ability to find specific private keys may one day be possible by quantum computers, but there are potential solutions to defend against that, and Bitcoin’s protocol can be updated by consensus if need be.Ethereum's minimum necessary issuance policy is enforced by a wide range of stakeholders within the ecosystem - including:monero hardware bitcoin зарабатывать
currency bitcoin bitcoin gadget ethereum пул bitcoin 1000 day bitcoin bitcoin карты bitcoin weekly bitcoin упал ethereum contract bitcoin работать testnet ethereum bitcoin алматы ферма ethereum
bitcoin strategy лучшие bitcoin bitcoin master bitcoin nachrichten hd7850 monero Cryptocurrency splitscryptocurrency dash tether wallet 