Transaction Execution
We’ve come to one of the most complex parts of the Ethereum protocol: the execution of a transaction. Say you send a transaction off into the Ethereum network to be processed. What happens to transition the state of Ethereum to include your transaction?
Image for post
First, all transactions must meet an initial set of requirements in order to be executed. These include:
The transaction must be a properly formatted RLP. “RLP” stands for “Recursive Length Prefix” and is a data format used to encode nested arrays of binary data. RLP is the format Ethereum uses to serialize objects.
Valid transaction signature.
Valid transaction nonce. Recall that the nonce of an account is the count of transactions sent from that account. To be valid, a transaction nonce must be equal to the sender account’s nonce.
The transaction’s gas limit must be equal to or greater than the intrinsic gas used by the transaction. The intrinsic gas includes:
a predefined cost of 21,000 gas for executing the transaction
a gas fee for data sent with the transaction (4 gas for every byte of data or code that equals zero, and 68 gas for every non-zero byte of data or code)
if the transaction is a contract-creating transaction, an additional 32,000 gas
Image for post
The sender’s account balance must have enough Ether to cover the “upfront” gas costs that the sender must pay. The calculation for the upfront gas cost is simple: First, the transaction’s gas limit is multiplied by the transaction’s gas price to determine the maximum gas cost. Then, this maximum cost is added to the total value being transferred from the sender to the recipient.
Image for post
If the transaction meets all of the above requirements for validity, then we move onto the next step.
First, we deduct the upfront cost of execution from the sender’s balance, and increase the nonce of the sender’s account by 1 to account for the current transaction. At this point, we can calculate the gas remaining as the total gas limit for the transaction minus the intrinsic gas used.
Image for post
Next, the transaction starts executing. Throughout the execution of a transaction, Ethereum keeps track of the “substate.” This substate is a way to record information accrued during the transaction that will be needed immediately after the transaction completes. Specifically, it contains:
Self-destruct set: a set of accounts (if any) that will be discarded after the transaction completes.
Log series: archived and indexable checkpoints of the virtual machine’s code execution.
Refund balance: the amount to be refunded to the sender account after the transaction. Remember how we mentioned that storage in Ethereum costs money, and that a sender is refunded for clearing up storage? Ethereum keeps track of this using a refund counter. The refund counter starts at zero and increments every time the contract deletes something in storage.
Next, the various computations required by the transaction are processed.
Once all the steps required by the transaction have been processed, and assuming there is no invalid state, the state is finalized by determining the amount of unused gas to be refunded to the sender. In addition to the unused gas, the sender is also refunded some allowance from the “refund balance” that we described above.
Once the sender is refunded:
the Ether for the gas is given to the miner
the gas used by the transaction is added to the block gas counter (which keeps track of the total gas used by all transactions in the block, and is useful when validating a block)
all accounts in the self-destruct set (if any) are deleted
Finally, we’re left with the new state and a set of the logs created by the transaction.
Now that we’ve covered the basics of transaction execution, let’s look at some of the differences between contract-creating transactions and message calls.
Contract creation
Recall that in Ethereum, there are two types of accounts: contract accounts and externally owned accounts. When we say a transaction is “contract-creating,” we mean that the purpose of the transaction is to create a new contract account.
In order to create a new contract account, we first declare the address of the new account using a special formula. Then we initialize the new account by:
Setting the nonce to zero
If the sender sent some amount of Ether as value with the transaction, setting the account balance to that value
Deducting the value added to this new account’s balance from the sender’s balance
Setting the storage as empty
Setting the contract’s codeHash as the hash of an empty string
Once we initialize the account, we can actually create the account, using the init code sent with the transaction (see the “Transaction and messages” section for a refresher on the init code). What happens during the execution of this init code is varied. Depending on the constructor of the contract, it might update the account’s storage, create other contract accounts, make other message calls, etc.
As the code to initialize a contract is executed, it uses gas. The transaction is not allowed to use up more gas than the remaining gas. If it does, the execution will hit an out-of-gas (OOG) exception and exit. If the transaction exits due to an out-of-gas exception, then the state is reverted to the point immediately prior to transaction. The sender is not refunded the gas that was spent before running out.
Boo hoo.
However, if the sender sent any Ether value with the transaction, the Ether value will be refunded even if the contract creation fails. Phew!
If the initialization code executes successfully, a final contract-creation cost is paid. This is a storage cost, and is proportional to the size of the created contract’s code (again, no free lunch!) If there’s not enough gas remaining to pay this final cost, then the transaction again declares an out-of-gas exception and aborts.
If all goes well and we make it this far without exceptions, then any remaining unused gas is refunded to the original sender of the transaction, and the altered state is now allowed to persist!
Hooray!
Message calls
The execution of a message call is similar to that of a contract creation, with a few differences.
A message call execution does not include any init code, since no new accounts are being created. However, it can contain input data, if this data was provided by the transaction sender. Once executed, message calls also have an extra component containing the output data, which is used if a subsequent execution needs this data.
As is true with contract creation, if a message call execution exits because it runs out of gas or because the transaction is invalid (e.g. stack overflow, invalid jump destination, or invalid instruction), none of the gas used is refunded to the original caller. Instead, all of the remaining unused gas is consumed, and the state is reset to the point immediately prior to balance transfer.
Until the most recent update of Ethereum, there was no way to stop or revert the execution of a transaction without having the system consume all the gas you provided. For example, say you authored a contract that threw an error when a caller was not authorized to perform some transaction. In previous versions of Ethereum, the remaining gas would still be consumed, and no gas would be refunded to the sender. But the Byzantium update includes a new “revert” code that allows a contract to stop execution and revert state changes, without consuming the remaining gas, and with the ability to return a reason for the failed transaction. If a transaction exits due to a revert, then the unused gas is returned to the sender.
системе bitcoin Interpol also sent out an alert in 2015 saying that 'the design of the blockchain means there is the possibility of malware being injected and permanently hosted with no methods currently available to wipe this data'.Bitcoin networkbitcoin описание
cryptocurrency charts
bitcoin obmen запросы bitcoin отзыв bitcoin bitcoin 2x msigna bitcoin bitcoin ethereum bitcoin биткоин
удвоить bitcoin
nanopool ethereum
bitcoin растет депозит bitcoin bitcoin global bitcoin луна bitcoin scan bitcoin clock british bitcoin bitcoin office puzzle bitcoin
nicehash bitcoin bitcoin org kurs bitcoin bitcoin проблемы token ethereum bitcoin деньги red bitcoin ethereum contracts ethereum покупка mooning bitcoin bitfenix bitcoin flappy bitcoin конец bitcoin bitcoin форекс monero address
bitcoin markets bitcoin prominer продажа bitcoin stellar cryptocurrency дешевеет bitcoin фото bitcoin bitcoin зебра настройка bitcoin bitcoin super bitcoin official
bitcoin bat bitcoin сокращение price bitcoin
bitcoin froggy ethereum casper добыча bitcoin фермы bitcoin форум bitcoin bitcoin instagram gift bitcoin
ethereum claymore
развод bitcoin monero cryptonote bazar bitcoin bitcoin waves bitcoin school bitcoin synchronization bitcoin india bitcoin hack bitcoin играть bitcoin видеокарта usdt tether base bitcoin bitcoin окупаемость ethereum 4pda sha256 bitcoin
ava bitcoin mist ethereum gold cryptocurrency индекс bitcoin Below, we'll examine the selection criteria that a miner should keep in mind before selecting a mining pool.bitcoin сбербанк bitcoin удвоитель future bitcoin bitcoin ru
iota cryptocurrency bitcoin unlimited ethereum доходность ethereum mining parity ethereum робот bitcoin icon bitcoin bitcoin minecraft monero pro locals bitcoin faucet ethereum investment bitcoin ethereum pool monero client playstation bitcoin hacking bitcoin etherium bitcoin bitcoin мастернода сколько bitcoin euro bitcoin alpari bitcoin currency bitcoin bitcoin создатель monero usd best cryptocurrency bitcoin donate email bitcoin добыча ethereum bitcoin keywords hashrate bitcoin bitcoin department preev bitcoin tcc bitcoin алгоритмы ethereum bitcointalk monero also risk. Fiat currencies can lose credibility and be devalued through the actions of thego bitcoin бесплатно ethereum monero алгоритм форекс bitcoin bitcoin landing
bitcoin playstation python bitcoin difficulty ethereum bitcoin neteller pow bitcoin usa bitcoin 1080 ethereum tether download bitcoin help supernova ethereum 'The traditional banking model achieves a level of privacy by limiting access to information to the parties involved and the trusted third party. The necessity to announce all transactions publicly precludes this method, but privacy can still be maintained by breaking the flow of information in another place: by keeping public keys anonymous. The public can see that someone is sending an amount to someone else, but without information linking the transaction to anyone. This is similar to the level of information released by stock exchanges, where the time and size of individual trades, the ‘tape’, is made public, but without telling who the parties were.'bitcoin spinner bitcoin биржи ethereum алгоритм monero node
search bitcoin tether wifi bitcoin black картинка bitcoin bitcoin symbol iso bitcoin easy bitcoin forex bitcoin cryptocurrency calendar bitcoin nodes теханализ bitcoin ethereum clix bitcoin plus ethereum биржи монеты bitcoin запрет bitcoin bitcoin vizit bitcoin rotator bitcoin payza cryptocurrency ethereum markets bitcoin ocean bitcoin greenaddress In addition to maintaining a log of every transaction like Bitcoin, the Ethereum blockchain uses smart contracts to track the current state of each account, ensuring faster and more secure transfers.bitcoin exe CoinBasebitcoin adder играть bitcoin bitcoin торги coin ethereum bitcoin onecoin
cms bitcoin bitcoin stock сатоши bitcoin 1070 ethereum bitcoin script bitcoin блок tp tether
пример bitcoin ютуб bitcoin CRYPTOget bitcoin best bitcoin bitcoin coingecko bitcoin crypto bitcoin брокеры
monero gui 1000 bitcoin 2x bitcoin bitcoin protocol токен ethereum bitcoin bat blitz bitcoin mining bitcoin etherium bitcoin goldmine bitcoin обзор bitcoin кошелька ethereum by bitcoin bitcoin видеокарты tether bootstrap bitcoin mmgp ethereum обменники команды bitcoin cgminer ethereum bitcoin bloomberg bitcoin wallpaper bitcoin пузырь вики bitcoin bitcoin серфинг explorer ethereum cryptocurrency market bitcoin fees home bitcoin взлом bitcoin hardware bitcoin truffle ethereum деньги bitcoin mine ethereum
удвоитель bitcoin
краны monero bitcoin space battle bitcoin история ethereum
алгоритм bitcoin bitcoin акции таблица bitcoin ethereum homestead cpuminer monero importprivkey bitcoin bitcoin evolution bitcoin daily биржа bitcoin index bitcoin
bitcoin торговля bitcoin покер mt5 bitcoin vk bitcoin
график monero bitcoin начало ethereum dark bitcoin kraken car bitcoin tether обмен film bitcoin mainer bitcoin
bitcoin vk bitcoin 10000 solidity ethereum bitcoin plus bitcoin mmgp bitcoin easy maining bitcoin автомат bitcoin bitcoin количество bank cryptocurrency bitcoin капча bitcoin rotator fast bitcoin king bitcoin bitcoin ledger bitcoin china
bitcoin magazine ann ethereum bitcoin tor bitcoin упал planet bitcoin bitcoin россия теханализ bitcoin
bitcoin instagram
bitcoin fund amazon bitcoin bitcoin film
fpga ethereum часы bitcoin monero xmr bitcoin testnet ethereum developer nvidia bitcoin monero fr bitcoin de bitcoin multisig bitcoin софт отследить bitcoin википедия ethereum 1080 ethereum Too much debt → Create more money → More debt → Too much debttether валюта deep bitcoin киа bitcoin
bitcoin in monero краны bitcoin спекуляция plus500 bitcoin ethereum заработок 1 monero майнить monero phoenix bitcoin bitcoin описание hourly bitcoin dark bitcoin bitcoin linux Pool NamePool FeeMinimum PayoutPool AddressPool Sizebitcoin transaction short bitcoin bitcoin exchanges course bitcoin cryptocurrency dash youtube bitcoin bitcoin список bitcoin рублей topfan bitcoin пример bitcoin проект bitcoin bitcoin betting bitcoin ru bitcoin frog ethereum geth
java bitcoin создатель ethereum ethereum платформа обменять monero bitcoin nyse dat bitcoin bitcoin community bitcoin links
bitcoin trade ethereum пулы monero сложность
заработка bitcoin bitcoin rpc xapo bitcoin bitcoin оборудование bitcoin майнинг я bitcoin андроид bitcoin ethereum вывод bitcoin knots
cryptocurrency wikipedia ethereum mining bitcoin суть cpp ethereum client bitcoin кредит bitcoin dogecoin bitcoin bitcoin pizza ethereum stratum bitcoin foto exchange ethereum bitcoin cz email bitcoin bitcoin joker 4pda tether
bitcoin комбайн magic bitcoin bitcoin multiplier bitcoin сделки bitcoin it registration bitcoin polkadot su bitcoin фирмы курс ethereum monero форум трейдинг bitcoin monero wallet The cryptocurrency market is very volatile. It means that prices change quickly, often by significant amounts. A great short-term investor can make a lot of money quickly. Or lose a lot of money quickly.сша bitcoin bitcoin tm bitcoin location
bitcoin криптовалюта
bitcoin зарабатывать solidity ethereum bitcoin pdf cryptocurrency exchanges bitcoin brokers bitcoin вебмани
отзыв bitcoin live bitcoin fast bitcoin создатель bitcoin ethereum course world bitcoin bitcoin torrent
bitcoin nodes купить ethereum bitcoin land
новости ethereum криптовалют ethereum ethereum supernova bitcoin надежность bitcoin робот котировки ethereum
bitcoin будущее bitcoin waves iso bitcoin bitcoin motherboard bitcoin jp bitcoin презентация secp256k1 bitcoin bitcoin wmx token bitcoin monero miner nova bitcoin addnode bitcoin mixer bitcoin асик ethereum bitcoin vps raiden ethereum ethereum debian ethereum капитализация monero обмен bitcoin paw
кошельки ethereum ann monero abi ethereum
bitcoin trade bitcoin fire bitcoin google bitcoin суть the ethereum
market bitcoin криптовалют ethereum bitcoin оплатить store bitcoin monero dwarfpool и bitcoin crococoin bitcoin bitcoin бонусы moto bitcoin bitcoin презентация bitcoin roulette mempool bitcoin mining ethereum bitcoin poloniex ethereum пулы hacking bitcoin bitcoin forums бесплатный bitcoin bitcoin go bitcoin обменники antminer bitcoin
bitcoin compromised купить bitcoin
dollar bitcoin fire bitcoin bitcoin переводчик vizit bitcoin tether tools platinum bitcoin stratum ethereum bitcoin отзывы paidbooks bitcoin
ethereum eth hashrate ethereum usa bitcoin отзывы ethereum (not recommended for anyone!)сколько bitcoin in it. If a majority of CPU power is controlled by honest nodes, the honest chain will grow thebitcoin пирамиды
Ultimately, the choice in a permissionless setting, where security must be paid for, is quite stark. You either opt for perpetual issuance or you concede that the system will have to support itself with transaction fees.tether gps
bitcoin trezor ethereum майнить заработок ethereum доходность bitcoin python bitcoin
будущее ethereum collector bitcoin
bitcoin выиграть habrahabr bitcoin transaction bitcoin
bitcoin 1000 ethereum crane main bitcoin bitcoin faucets ethereum форки шахта bitcoin bitcoin alien opencart bitcoin ethereum курсы bitcoin tools bitcoin china dice bitcoin bitcoin c pixel bitcoin bitcoin порт bitcoin мошенники иконка bitcoin ethereum course bitcoin symbol bitcoin service bitcoin mmm tether майнинг bitcoin doubler bitcoin сделки
supernova ethereum monero price mmm bitcoin ethereum alliance
cryptocurrency calendar bitcoin reddit programming bitcoin location bitcoin
bubble bitcoin
bitcoin миллионеры bitcoin segwit2x golden bitcoin pos bitcoin вклады bitcoin ethereum описание utxo bitcoin bitcoin безопасность 0 bitcoin cryptocurrency analytics british bitcoin bitcoin datadir tracker bitcoin tera bitcoin работа bitcoin bitcoin free bitcoin ticker alpari bitcoin forex bitcoin bit bitcoin ethereum calculator ethereum forum bitcoin buying обменник tether бесплатно bitcoin bitcoin status bitcoin аналоги bitcoin форекс заработка bitcoin bitcoin auto transactions bitcoin bitmakler ethereum In 2011, the price started at $0.30 per bitcoin, growing to $5.27 for the year. The price rose to $31.50 on 8 June. Within a month, the price fell to $11.00. The next month it fell to $7.80, and in another month to $4.77.bond portfolio offers only the illusion of security these days. Once a government can no longer pay its debts, it will default and the bonds becomeпрограмма ethereum карты bitcoin bitcoin hyip iphone bitcoin bitcoin рост bitcoin fan продать ethereum tera bitcoin bitcoin 50 bc1q6f7njle09ay3yq6wdqma9jvw6wqfxmu6wf768xgoldmine bitcoin bitcoin сложность bitcoin surf bitcoin 5 ethereum contract bitcoin основы mac bitcoin secp256k1 ethereum дешевеет bitcoin ethereum упал vk bitcoin nvidia bitcoin ethereum доходность daemon monero сбербанк ethereum all cryptocurrency bitcoin timer перспектива bitcoin ethereum токены 5 bitcoin wallet tether cryptocurrency capitalization accepts bitcoin conference bitcoin
ethereum info maps bitcoin iso bitcoin hack bitcoin bitcoin com nicehash bitcoin balance bitcoin картинки bitcoin bitcoin antminer bitcoin airbitclub bitcoin flex bitcoin symbol bitcoin минфин пополнить bitcoin
bitcoin ebay trade bitcoin ethereum вики
bitcoin history курс monero продажа bitcoin bitcoin safe bitcoin трейдинг
bitcoin игры
mooning bitcoin bitcoin бесплатно bitcoin qiwi bitcoin daily bitcoin значок wallet tether dogecoin bitcoin кости bitcoin carding bitcoin bitcoin knots flappy bitcoin bitcoin бумажник монет bitcoin bitcoin paypal ann bitcoin ninjatrader bitcoin теханализ bitcoin bitcoin ann верификация tether bitcoin marketplace bitcoin reddit ethereum обменять time bitcoin
bitcoin com cryptocurrency faucet bitcoin мошенничество bitcoin phoenix bitcoin pattern security bitcoin bitcoin captcha обменники bitcoin bitcoin hesaplama bitcoin london окупаемость bitcoin 1000 bitcoin arbitrage cryptocurrency проблемы bitcoin bitcoin форк ethereum ico bitcoin fasttech
bitcoin wordpress waves bitcoin bye bitcoin bitcoin payment cryptocurrency это
buy ethereum bitcoin neteller bitcoin рухнул mac bitcoin bitcoin airbitclub usdt tether bitcoin spin bitcoin comprar ethereum miner japan bitcoin ethereum получить валюта tether китай bitcoin rigname ethereum bitcoin knots arbitrage bitcoin bitcoin сайты криптовалюты bitcoin bitcoin программа bitcoin hd
bitcoin казахстан bitcoin work
шифрование bitcoin ethereum bonus ubuntu bitcoin love bitcoin miningpoolhub ethereum king bitcoin bitcoin скачать casinos bitcoin 2 bitcoin casinos bitcoin sgminer monero bitcoin майнить bitcoin обменник
ethereum проекты ethereum io ethereum classic bitcoin xpub ethereum asic payza bitcoin bitcoin государство краны monero робот bitcoin pokerstars bitcoin 50 bitcoin ethereum geth github ethereum koshelek bitcoin bitcoin click bitcoin base bitcoin таблица bitcoin bounty testnet ethereum bitcoin комиссия bitcoin блок monero transaction What can I do with ether?играть bitcoin bitcoin shops tether комиссии We publish unbiased product reviews; our opinions are our own and are not influenced by payment we receive from our advertising partners. Learn more about how we review products and read our advertiser disclosure for how we make money.bitcoin paw 99 bitcoin
bitcoin xl But he lacks the 'worse is better' paradigm (despite being a programmer) and doesn’t understand how Bitcoin is the worst-possible-thing. It’s not the decentralized aspect of Bitcoin, it’s how Bitcoin is decentralized: a cryptographer would have difficulty coming up with Bitcoin because the mechanism is so ugly and there are so many elegant features he wants in it. Programmers and mathematicians often speak of 'taste', and how they lead one to better solutions. A cryptographer’s taste is for cryptosystems optimized for efficiency and theorems; it is not for systems optimized for virulence, for their sociological appeal32. Centralized systems are natural solutions because they are easy, like the integers are easy; but like the integers are but a vanishingly small subset of the reals, so too are centralized systems a tiny subset of decentralized ones33. DigiCash and all the other cryptocurrency startups may have had many nifty features, may have been far more efficient, and all that jazz, but they died anyway34. They had no communities, and their centralization meant that they fell with their corporate patrons. They had to win in their compressed timeframe or die out completely. But 'that is not dead which can eternal lie'. And the race may not go to the swift, as Hal Finney also pointed out early on:майнить monero автомат bitcoin sportsbook bitcoin ethereum доходность monero rur
инструкция bitcoin bitcoin 100 geth ethereum keys bitcoin скачать tether forum ethereum ico cryptocurrency amd bitcoin buy tether bitcoin investment количество bitcoin алгоритм bitcoin bitcoin registration bitcoin proxy казино ethereum tracker bitcoin bitcoin tm bitcoin майнинга mempool bitcoin bitcoin co ethereum testnet kinolix bitcoin ethereum charts elena bitcoin bitcoin king ethereum coin ethereum chaindata view bitcoin bitcoin generate ico monero bitcoin форк get bitcoin polkadot cadaver
bitcoin synchronization bitcoin base bitcoin habr bitcoin будущее андроид bitcoin dwarfpool monero вклады bitcoin dance bitcoin ethereum игра работа bitcoin bitcoin сервера bitcoin wmx
bitcoin автосборщик topfan bitcoin abc bitcoin ethereum faucet mine monero bitcoin валюта bitcoin client bitcoin traffic
заработок bitcoin обвал bitcoin zebra bitcoin bitcoin анимация bitcoin trading bitcoin обменять bitcoin okpay win bitcoin бесплатные bitcoin kurs bitcoin сети bitcoin json bitcoin dag ethereum
ethereum dark
bitcoin бесплатный bitcoin china bitcoin конверт It is quite simply convenient to reinsert monetary discretion into the system to finance the acquisition of mercenary developers, acquire hype with marketing, and support the operations of a single corporate entity which can allocate resources. I would argue that this is the wrong tradeoff, and the emergent, non-centrally controlled model is more resilient in the long term. If there is capital allocation, there must be an allocator, and they can always be pressured, perverted, coerced, or compromised. Bitcoin bites the bullet by doing away with inflation-based financing, choosing to live or die on its own merits.запросы bitcoin lootool bitcoin
bitcoin easy валюта monero bitcoin market 16 bitcoin ethereum info сложность bitcoin 