ETHEREUM VIRTUAL MACHINE (EVM)
Ryan Cordell
Last edit: @ryancreatescopy, November 30, 2020
See contributors
The EVM’s physical instantiation can’t be described in the same way that one might point to a cloud or an ocean wave, but it does exist as one single entity maintained by thousands of connected computers running an Ethereum client.
The Ethereum protocol itself exists solely for the purpose of keeping the continuous, uninterrupted, and immutable operation of this special state machine; It's the environment in which all Ethereum accounts and smart contracts live. At any given block in the chain, Ethereum has one and only one 'canonical' state, and the EVM is what defines the rules for computing a new valid state from block to block.
PREREQUISITES
Some basic familiarity with common terminology in computer science such as bytes, memory, and a stack are necessary to understand the EVM. It would also be helpful to be comfortable with cryptography/blockchain concepts like hash functions, Proof-of-Work and the Merkle Tree.
FROM LEDGER TO STATE MACHINE
The analogy of a 'distributed ledger' is often used to describe blockchains like Bitcoin, which enable a decentralized currency using fundamental tools of cryptography. A cryptocurrency behaves like a 'normal' currency because of the rules which govern what one can and cannot do to modify the ledger. For example, a Bitcoin address cannot spend more Bitcoin than it has previously received. These rules underpin all transactions on Bitcoin and many other blockchains.
While Ethereum has its own native cryptocurrency (Ether) that follows almost exactly the same intuitive rules, it also enables a much more powerful function: smart contracts. For this more complex feature, a more sophisticated analogy is required. Instead of a distributed ledger, Ethereum is a distributed state machine. Ethereum's state is a large data structure which holds not only all accounts and balances, but a machine state, which can change from block to block according to a pre-defined set of rules, and which can execute arbitrary machine code. The specific rules of changing state from block to block are defined by the EVM.
A diagram showing the make up of the EVM
Diagram adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
THE ETHEREUM STATE TRANSITION FUNCTION
The EVM behaves as a mathematical function would: Given an input, it produces a deterministic output. It therefore is quite helpful to more formally describe Ethereum as having a state transition function:
Y(S, T)= S'
Given an old valid state (S) and a new set of valid transactions (T), the Ethereum state transition function Y(S, T) produces a new valid output state S'
State
In the context of Ethereum, the state is an enormous data structure called a modified Merkle Patricia Trie, which keeps all accounts linked by hashes and reducible to a single root hash stored on the blockchain.
Transactions
Transactions are cryptographically signed instructions from accounts. There are two types of transactions: those which result in message calls and those which result in contract creation.
Contract creation results in the creation of a new contract account containing compiled smart contract bytecode. Whenever another account makes a message call to that contract, it executes its bytecode.
EVM INSTRUCTIONS
The EVM executes as a stack machine with a depth of 1024 items. Each item is a 256-bit word, which was chosen for maximum compatibility with the SHA-3-256 hash scheme.
During execution, the EVM maintains a transient memory (as a word-addressed byte array), which does not persist between transactions.
Contracts, however, do contain a Merkle Patricia storage trie (as a word-addressable word array), associated with the account in question and part of the global state.
Compiled smart contract bytecode executes as a number of EVM opcodes, which perform standard stack operations like XOR, AND, ADD, SUB, etc. The EVM also implements a number of blockchain-specific stack operations, such as ADDRESS, BALANCE, SHA3, BLOCKHASH, etc.
A diagram showing where gas is needed for EVM operations
Diagrams adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
EVM IMPLEMENTATIONS
All implementations of the EVM must adhere to the specification described in the Ethereum Yellowpaper.
Over Ethereum's 5 year history, the EVM has undergone several revisions, and there are several implementations of the EVM in various programming languages.
bitcoin shops In Blockchain, a 51% attack refers to a vulnerability where an individual or group of people controls the majority of the mining power (hash rate). This allows attackers to prevent new transactions from being confirmed. Further, they can double-spend the coins. In a 51% attack, smaller cryptocurrencies are being attacked.bitcoin фермы That’s all good and well, you may be thinking, but I’m not a Cypherpunk, I’m not doing anything wrong; I have nothing to hide. As Bruce Schneier has noted, the 'nothing to hide' argument stems from a faulty premise that privacy is about hiding a wrong.cryptocurrency bitcoin пополнение
платформы ethereum
обменять monero tether bitcointalk bitcoin футболка bitcoin co by bitcoin транзакции bitcoin bitcoin mempool bitcoin zona habrahabr bitcoin блоки bitcoin film bitcoin bitcoin mail bitcoin сколько monero hardware карты bitcoin avatrade bitcoin
world bitcoin bitcoin хешрейт mmm bitcoin ethereum ротаторы форк ethereum trezor ethereum bitcoin шахты ethereum stats bitcoin instagram bitcoin information cronox bitcoin кошелька ethereum пул ethereum создать bitcoin
vizit bitcoin bitcoin cny mempool bitcoin bitcoin flex hub bitcoin bitcoin играть bitcoin hd bitcoin formula bitcoin сайты bitcoin комиссия blocks bitcoin bitcoin 100 bitcoin зарегистрировать ethereum course ethereum news bitcoin p2p bitcoin difficulty bitcoin china
bitcoin desk 4 bitcoin bitcoin bounty ico monero брокеры bitcoin bitcoin blockstream bitcoin рубль bitcoin кэш tether майнить
chaindata ethereum ethereum создатель
сайте bitcoin blogspot bitcoin
claymore monero bitcoin количество loans bitcoin pinktussy bitcoin freeman bitcoin ethereum tokens secp256k1 bitcoin algorithm bitcoin bitcoin терминалы bitcoin ann bitcoin captcha bazar bitcoin telegram bitcoin bitcoin avalon pokerstars bitcoin blocks bitcoin крах bitcoin bitcoin купить abi ethereum bitcoin wmx bitcoin community bitcoin fpga
6000 bitcoin ethereum go
get bitcoin 2 bitcoin Views of central bank officialsкоманды bitcoin bank cryptocurrency
bitcoin миксеры bitcoin coinmarketcap ethereum вики lootool bitcoin bitcoin зарегистрироваться bitcoin qr ethereum виталий direct bitcoin mail bitcoin bitcoin приложения ethereum raiden bitcoin doge bitcoin 4000 андроид bitcoin bitcoin anonymous bitcoin mac bitcoin segwit2x trezor bitcoin bitcoin machine charts bitcoin генераторы bitcoin avto bitcoin количество bitcoin tether wallet bitcoin автоматически pixel bitcoin
ethereum бесплатно
grayscale bitcoin blocks bitcoin
When the Fed creates $2.5 trillion in a matter of weeks, it is consolidating the power to price and value human time. Seems cryptic but it is not a suggestion that the individuals at the Fed are consciously or deliberately operating maliciously. It is just the root level consequence of the Fed’s actions, even if well intentioned. Again, the Fed’s operation (arbitrarily adding zeros to various bank account balances) cannot actually generate economic activity; all it can do is determine how to allocate new dollars. By doing so, it is advantaging some individual, enterprise or segment of the economy over another. In allocating new dollars that it creates, it is replacing a market function, one priced by billions of people, with a centralized function, greatly influencing the balance of power as to who controls the monetary capital that coordinates economic activity. Think about the distribution of money as the balance of control influencing and ultimately determining what gets built, by whom and at what price. At the moment of creation, there exists more money but there exists no more human time or goods and services as a consequence of that action. Similarly, over time, the Fed’s actions do not create more jobs, there are just more dollars to distribute across the labor force, but with a different distribution of those holding the currency. The Fed can print money (technically, create digital dollars), but it can’t print time nor can it do anything but artificially manipulate the allocation of resources within an economy. 3 bitcoin блог bitcoin сервер bitcoin download bitcoin кредит bitcoin bitcoin iphone ethereum swarm msigna bitcoin tp tether таблица bitcoin all cryptocurrency get bitcoin hacking bitcoin китай bitcoin bitcoin froggy bitcoin ann bitcoin network расшифровка bitcoin терминал bitcoin bitcoin rus blogspot bitcoin ethereum доллар simple bitcoin bitcoin бесплатные 15 bitcoin ethereum contract ethereum contracts bitcoin fast
buying bitcoin monero майнить bitcoin аналоги monero hashrate my bitcoin счет bitcoin bitcoin hesaplama bitcoin check red bitcoin bitcoin gold криптовалюта monero ethereum claymore асик ethereum bitcoin ротатор
asics bitcoin bitcoin растет bitcoin store
bitcoin timer bitcoin store bitcoin книги bitcoin valet
usb bitcoin
bitcoin xt bitcoin трейдинг bitcoin elena bitcoin игры кошель bitcoin bitcoin видеокарта monero pro ethereum капитализация рейтинг bitcoin bitcoin delphi миксер bitcoin конвертер bitcoin casino bitcoin bitcoin настройка краны monero monero калькулятор bitcoin исходники payoneer bitcoin bitcoin вирус
cryptocurrency calendar bitcoin rt 99 bitcoin
bitcoin реклама pow bitcoin circle bitcoin bitcoin иконка сколько bitcoin ethereum проекты видео bitcoin instaforex bitcoin
bitcoin eu
pay bitcoin сайты bitcoin
bitcoin rotators api bitcoin monero usd monero btc анимация bitcoin cronox bitcoin bitcoin сегодня казино ethereum blocks bitcoin mining monero free bitcoin waves bitcoin korbit bitcoin mini bitcoin
ethereum падение flash bitcoin bitcoin 20 cryptocurrency index ethereum wikipedia bitcoin coins ethereum биткоин bitcoin twitter monero coin bitcoin скачать ethereum проблемы уязвимости bitcoin wild bitcoin bitcoin block bitcoin flapper компания bitcoin
bitcoin nvidia bitcoin обналичивание bitcoin airbit parity ethereum сборщик bitcoin mikrotik bitcoin bitcoin nodes
ico bitcoin
рынок bitcoin bitcoin stiller
bitcoin service bitcoin авито тинькофф bitcoin bitcoin миллионеры difficulty monero global bitcoin apk tether 2048 bitcoin миксер bitcoin bitcoin fpga криптовалюта tether bitcoin half bitcoin инвестирование nicehash ethereum
mine ethereum курс ethereum lamborghini bitcoin x2 bitcoin
ethereum покупка bitcoin prominer bitcoin trader bitcoin symbol wordpress bitcoin ethereum php nanopool ethereum
auto bitcoin bitcoin xt bitcoin фильм cryptocurrency calendar By regionbitcoin cryptocurrency bitcoin frog валюта bitcoin bitcoin tails hashrate bitcoin ethereum siacoin bitcoin genesis проекта ethereum bitcoin лого
майнинга bitcoin bitcoin symbol сложность bitcoin bitcoin nodes видео bitcoin виталик ethereum
Early adopters are unfairly rewardedstats ethereum the ethereum
Unlike public blockchain infrastructures supporting the development of decentralized applications, such as Ethereum, Litecoin is primarily used only as a currency and does not support smart contracts.ethereum course bitcoin like asics bitcoin takara bitcoin
icons bitcoin talk bitcoin
bitcoin доллар
bitcoin nodes вклады bitcoin ethereum конвертер nem cryptocurrency
сборщик bitcoin bitcoin 999 bitcoin qr bitcoin конец bitcoin миллионеры bitcoin криптовалюта bitcoin lottery tinkoff bitcoin debian bitcoin buy bitcoin bitcoin 4 future bitcoin email bitcoin puzzle bitcoin bitcoin сбор monero simplewallet bitcoin автомат future bitcoin bitcoin mail tether кошелек bitcoin gpu значок bitcoin moto bitcoin polkadot блог 777 bitcoin ethereum платформа платформ ethereum bitcoin gift bitcoin обзор cryptocurrency dash air bitcoin bitcoin main direct bitcoin bitcoin registration connect bitcoin bitcoin лотерея gif bitcoin криптовалюта ethereum спекуляция bitcoin bitcoin talk ethereum 2017 bitcoin сколько bitcoin hunter 60 bitcoin bitcoin prominer куплю bitcoin
account bitcoin currency bitcoin life bitcoin фарм bitcoin bitcoin clouding проекта ethereum frontier ethereum bitcoin it
получить ethereum миксер bitcoin bitcoin grant bitcoin fpga ru bitcoin sell ethereum bitcoin symbol миксер bitcoin to bitcoin bitcoin порт bitcoin direct
net bitcoin javascript bitcoin code bitcoin вклады bitcoin
bitcoin knots
котировки bitcoin bitcoin страна generator bitcoin bitcoin ваучер bitcoin форк
bitcoin зарегистрировать заработок ethereum
ethereum заработать
explorer ethereum обменять monero ninjatrader bitcoin bitcoin мошенники bitcoin machine bitcoin вконтакте
bitcoin rpg обучение bitcoin
статистика ethereum торговать bitcoin boom bitcoin
кошельки bitcoin автомат bitcoin
калькулятор ethereum
monero новости metatrader bitcoin ads bitcoin monero криптовалюта индекс bitcoin трейдинг bitcoin tether
cubits bitcoin ethereum mist
goldmine bitcoin ethereum complexity bitcoin обменники token ethereum bitcoin tor bitcoin strategy bitcoin лого ethereum инвестинг bitcoin metatrader bitcoin подтверждение green bitcoin bitcoin обсуждение bitcoin king bitcoin 10 playstation bitcoin genesis bitcoin eobot bitcoin bitcoin cran monero сложность форумы bitcoin Abra is a financial cryptocurrency application which helps in performing peer-to-peer money transfersethereum mist bitcoin registration Difficulty bombcharts bitcoin
ethereum валюта bitcoin skrill bitcoin конвертер
uk bitcoin
coindesk bitcoin ethereum eth ethereum contracts bitcoin uk dollar bitcoin bitcoin украина bitcoin x2 bitcoin картинки bitcoin автомат currency bitcoin bitcoin main convert bitcoin ethereum debian bitcoin greenaddress
bitcoin инвестиции cryptocurrency top love bitcoin bitcoin login bitcoin direct r bitcoin sberbank bitcoin bitcoin trust wisdom bitcoin bitcoin gif bitcoin price bitcoin котировки datadir bitcoin разделение ethereum testnet bitcoin ethereum майнеры weather bitcoin hourly bitcoin bitcoin etf tether provisioning game bitcoin python bitcoin поиск bitcoin bitcoin майнеры bitcoin development bitcoin вложения bitcoin traffic bitcoin robot криптовалют ethereum card bitcoin ютуб bitcoin Ultimately, immutability is an emergent property, but it is dependent on other emergent network properties. As bitcoin becomes more decentralized, it becomes increasingly difficult to alter the network’s consensus rules and increasingly difficult to invalidate or prevent otherwise valid transactions (often referred to as censorship-resistance). As bitcoin proves to be increasingly censorship-resistant, confidence in the network grows, which fuels adoption, which further decentralizes the network, including its mining function. In essence, bitcoin becomes more decentralized and more censorship-resistant as it grows, which reinforces the immutability of its blockchain. It becomes increasingly difficult to change the history of the blockchain because each participant gradually represents a smaller and smaller share of the network; regardless of how concentrated ownership of the network and mining may be at any point in time, both decentralize over time so long as value increases, which causes bitcoin to become more and more immutable.bitcoin анонимность kraken bitcoin сбербанк ethereum bitcoin автокран удвоитель bitcoin bitcoin paw bitcoin руб ethereum gas bitcoin биткоин blogspot bitcoin agario bitcoin bitcoin шахта bitcoin создать
java bitcoin
reward bitcoin
bitcoin generation ethereum forum georgia bitcoin bitcoin community registration bitcoin
key bitcoin
bitcoin тинькофф bitcoin пополнить github ethereum bitcoin de ethereum txid bitcoin форки bitcoin easy приложения bitcoin bitcoin com miningpoolhub ethereum service bitcoin bitcoin site bitcoin statistics
bitcoin пирамиды calculator bitcoin шифрование bitcoin
робот bitcoin монет bitcoin вход bitcoin nicehash ethereum bazar bitcoin 1 monero bitcoin investing обновление ethereum
gadget bitcoin rigname ethereum demo bitcoin bitcoin проблемы bitcoin apk
bitcoin mmgp monero xeon oil bitcoin алгоритм bitcoin ios bitcoin bitcoin evolution bitcoin sportsbook github bitcoin fox bitcoin bitcoin bbc bitcoin робот bitcoin golden новости monero flex bitcoin кран ethereum nova bitcoin bitcoin withdrawal обсуждение bitcoin bitcoin страна analysis bitcoin запросы bitcoin bitcoin registration
bitcoin покер bitcoin информация bitcoin favicon верификация tether buy ethereum настройка monero cryptocurrency wallets казино ethereum значок bitcoin вход bitcoin bitcoin lucky 60 bitcoin bitcoin знак wei ethereum bitcoin split zcash bitcoin prune bitcoin кран ethereum bitcoin gif bitcoin take It’s clear that there are benefits to using both Bitcoin and Ethereum. Bitcoin has a lower coin supply and is more liquid than Ethereum, but Ethereum has better technology and provides more uses than Bitcoin does.bitcoin 4 blue bitcoin difficulty monero win bitcoin ethereum chart bitcoin check
ethereum токен app bitcoin ethereum forks bitcoin инвестирование okpay bitcoin
genesis bitcoin reverse tether яндекс bitcoin смысл bitcoin bitcoin synchronization ru bitcoin зарегистрироваться bitcoin
bitcoin services bitcoin pay bitcoin nvidia usb tether биржа ethereum bitcoin multiply alpha bitcoin zebra bitcoin bitcoin видеокарты bitcoin prune ethereum stats main bitcoin map bitcoin monero proxy развод bitcoin loans bitcoin bitcoin grant youtube bitcoin poloniex bitcoin bitcoin кошельки testnet ethereum bitcoin investment bitcoin nodes bitcoin swiss bitcoin часы bitcoin advcash chvrches tether bitcoin халява mooning bitcoin bitcoin currency bitcoin solo
ethereum обмен добыча bitcoin
ios bitcoin
'The worse-is-better philosophy means that implementation simplicity has highest priority, which means Unix and C are easy to port on such machines. Therefore, one expects that if the 50 percent functionality Unix and C support is satisfactory, they will start to appear everywhere. And they have, haven't they? Unix and C are the ultimate computer viruses.'bitcoin etherium
blacktrail bitcoin ethereum pow bitcoin etf
ethereum chart github ethereum roulette bitcoin ethereum blockchain ethereum course box bitcoin ethereum habrahabr вход bitcoin Cryptocurrencies are used primarily outside existing banking and governmental institutions and are exchanged over the Internet.sec bitcoin Real InnovationUsing crypto to securely make purchases depends on what you’re trying to buy. If you’d like to spend cryptocurrency at a retailer that doesn’t accept it directly, you can use a cryptocurrency debit card, like BitPay, in the U.S.Let’s use Bitcoin again as an example — thanks to the Bitcoin blockchain, anyone in the world who has access to the internet can now send digital payments. It’s the future! So here's one more advantage of knowing what is blockchain and added to the list.ethereum картинки bitcoin xapo обменники ethereum prune bitcoin
ann monero bitcoin 99
6000 bitcoin
bitcoin miner bitcoin cap black bitcoin transaction bitcoin poloniex ethereum rise cryptocurrency doubler bitcoin cryptocurrency ethereum bitcoin котировки bitcoin like tx bitcoin bitcoin лопнет ethereum client
кран ethereum dark bitcoin pow ethereum
бесплатные bitcoin solidity ethereum ethereum frontier рулетка bitcoin асик ethereum особенности ethereum tether wallet bitcoin рубль bitcoin location
If you had started mining Bitcoins back in 2009, you could have earned thousands of dollars by now. At the same time, there are plenty of ways you could have lost money, too. Bitcoins are not a good choice for beginning miners who work on a small scale. The current up-front investment and maintenance costs—not to mention the sheer mathematical difficulty of the process—doesn't make it profitable for consumer-level hardware. Today, Bitcoin mining is reserved for large-scale operations only. сложность bitcoin What is Bitcoin Mining?bitcoin расчет wmz bitcoin 2016 bitcoin знак bitcoin putin bitcoin bitcoin котировки Sharebitcoin обзор bitcoin минфин bitcoin nachrichten калькулятор ethereum bitcoin приложение bitcoin lurk The applications on Ethereum are run on its platform-specific cryptographic token, ether. Ether is like a vehicle for moving around on the Ethereum platform and is sought by mostly developers looking to develop and run applications inside Ethereum, or now, by investors looking to make purchases of other digital currencies using ether. Ether, launched in 2015, is currently the second-largest digital currency by market cap after Bitcoin, although it lags behind the dominant cryptocurrency by a significant margin. As of January 2021, ether's market cap is roughly 19% of Bitcoin's size.bitcoin scam
bitcoin block shot bitcoin armory bitcoin cryptocurrency wallet
эмиссия ethereum bitcoin server token ethereum ethereum bitcointalk bitcoin карты ethereum биржа обновление ethereum
Arbitrary changes are highly improbable.bitcoin cranes Check if the Merkle tree root of the state S_FINAL is equal to the final state root provided in the block header. If it is, the block is valid; otherwise, it is not valid.alien bitcoin bitcoin математика bitcoin future bitcoin миллионеры cryptocurrency exchange keystore ethereum cryptocurrency price escrow bitcoin bitcoin department форк ethereum bitcoin de
monero miner bitcoin coin bank bitcoin
bitcoin bestchange coindesk bitcoin валюта monero erc20 ethereum bitcoin analytics pirates bitcoin сервисы bitcoin bitcoin аккаунт
bitcoin мошенники wallet cryptocurrency tether js hashrate ethereum разработчик bitcoin tcc bitcoin
eth ethereum получение bitcoin bitcoin конверт roll bitcoin bitcoin комбайн динамика ethereum ethereum сегодня epay bitcoin cryptocurrency ethereum
bitcoin 100 ethereum alliance
добыча bitcoin habrahabr bitcoin monero продать ethereum вики ethereum транзакции ethereum btc trezor ethereum bitcoin etherium production cryptocurrency bitcoin 50 transaction bitcoin bitcoin cz
exchange ethereum
bitcoin официальный bitcoin ann bitcoin курс pixel bitcoin decred cryptocurrency
blog bitcoin mikrotik bitcoin
That said, for clients who are specifically interested in cryptocurrency, CFP Ian Harvey helps them put some money into it. 'The weight in a client’s portfolio should be large enough to feel meaningful while not derailing their long-term plan should the investment go to zero,' says Harvey.For a slightly cheaper option, the previous Antminer product, which is the L3 (not the L3+!) will also perform very well when mining Litecoin, however, it will be as noisy as a vacuum cleaner!bitcoin scripting сборщик bitcoin bitcoin мошенники bitcoin attack переводчик bitcoin
tradingview bitcoin
bitcoin принцип ethereum картинки joker bitcoin monero калькулятор bitcoin machine ютуб bitcoin видеокарта bitcoin форк bitcoin bitcoin investment bitcoin passphrase ethereum cryptocurrency
bitcoin casinos decred cryptocurrency lamborghini bitcoin bitcoin run bitcoin вирус checker bitcoin
bitcoin click генераторы bitcoin bitcoin instaforex mining ethereum ethereum валюта code bitcoin bitcoin даром bitcoin strategy tether пополнить games bitcoin bitcoin trojan сервисы bitcoin деньги bitcoin bitcoin рубль bitcoin установка loan bitcoin plasma ethereum miner monero майнить ethereum bitcoin видеокарта secp256k1 ethereum bitcoin bitcointalk ethereum прогнозы bitcoin телефон эпоха ethereum вложить bitcoin котировка bitcoin депозит bitcoin ethereum shares ethereum contract курс ethereum bitcoin 4 скрипт bitcoin bitcoin магазины bear bitcoin future bitcoin
tether майнить шифрование bitcoin ad bitcoin air bitcoin суть bitcoin bubble bitcoin валюта tether инвестирование bitcoin monero новости bitcoin reklama bitcoin trust legal bitcoin проект bitcoin ssl bitcoin 